Description
JOHN WILEY Renewable Energy In Power Systems 2Nd Edition 2019 by David Infield, Leon Freris
With the growth in renewable energy (RE) generation installed capacity, many countries such as the UK are relying on higher levels of RE generation to meet targets for reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In the face of this, the integration issue is now of increasing concern, in particular to system operators. This updated text describes the individual renewable technologies and their power generation characteristics alongside an expanded introduction to power systems and the challenges posed by high levels of penetrations from such technologies. Features of this edition: Covers power conditioning, the characteristics of RE generators, with emphasis on their time varying nature, and the use of power electronics in interfacing RE sources to grids. Outlines up to date RE integration issues such as power flow in networks supplied from a combination of conventional and renewable energy sources. Update on the economics of power generation and the role of markets in delivering investment in sustainable solutions by specialist contributors.Considers the challenge of maintaining power balance in a system with increasing RE input, including recent moves toward power system frequency support from RE sources. Offers an insightful perspective on the shape of future power systems including offshore networks and demand side management. Worked examples enhance this edition s suitability as a textbook for introductory courses in RE systems technology. Firmly established as an essential reference, Renewable Energy in Power Systems, Second Edition will prove a real asset to engineers and others involved in both the growing power and renewables sector. This text should also be of particular benefit to students of electrical power engineering and will appeal to non-specialists through the inclusion of background material covering the basics of electricity generation. Foreword xvPreface to the First Edition xixPreface to the Second Edition xxiAcknowledgements xxiiiAbout the Companion Website xxv1 Energy and Electricity 11.1 The World Energy Scene 11.1.1 History 11.1.2 World Energy Consumption 11.1.3 Finite Resources 21.1.4 Energy Security and Disparity of Use 31.2 The Environmental Impact of Energy Use 41.2.1 The Problem 41.2.2 The Science 51.2.3 The Kyoto Protocol 71.2.4 Economics of Mitigation 101.2.5 Efficient Energy Use 111.2.6 The Electricity Sector 141.2.7 Possible Solutions and Sustainability 151.3 Generating Electricity 161.3.1 Conversion from Other Energy Forms - The Importance of Efficiency 161.3.2 The Nuclear Path 171.3.3 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 171.3.4 Renewables 181.4 The Electrical Power System 201.4.1 Structure of the Electrical Power System 201.4.2 Integrating Renewables into Power Systems 231.4.3 Distributed Generation 231.4.4 Renewable Energy Penetration 241.4.5 Network Stability 25References 252 Features of Conventional and Renewable Generation 272.1 Introduction 272.2 Conventional Sources: Coal, Gas and Nuclear 282.3 Hydroelectric Power 292.3.1 Large-Scale Hydro 302.3.2 Small Hydro 312.3.2.1 Turbine Designs 322.4 Wind Power 332.4.1 The Resource 332.4.2 Wind Variability 342.4.3 Wind Turbines 372.4.4 Power Variability 402.4.4.1 Variability from Second to Second 402.4.4.2 Variability from Minute to Minute 412.4.4.3 Variability from Hour to Hour and from Day-to-Day 412.4.4.4 Seasonal Variability 422.4.5 Offshore Wind 422.5 PV and Solar Thermal Electricity 472.5.1 The Resource 472.5.2 The Technology 492.5.3 Photovoltaic Systems 492.5.4 Solar Thermal Electric Systems 522.6 Tidal Power 542.6.1 The Resource 542.6.2 Tidal Enhancement 542.6.2.1 Funnelling 542.6.2.2 Resonance 552.6.2.3 Coriolis Effect 552.6.3 Tidal Barrages 552.6.4 Operational Strategies 552.6.4.1 Power Variability 562.6.5 Tidal Current Schemes 572.7 Wave Power 592.7.1 The Resource 592.7.2 The Technology 592.7.3 Variability 602.8 Biomass 622.8.1 The Resource 622.8.2 Resource Sustainability 622.9 Summary of Power Generation Characteristics 632.10 Combining Sources 64References 653 Power Balance/Frequency Control 673.1 Introduction 673.1.1 The Power Balance Issue 673.2 Electricity Demand 683.2.1 Demand Curves 683.2.2 Load Aggregation 693.2.3 Demand-Side Management - Deferrable Loads 703.3 Power Governing 713.3.1 Power Conversion Chain 713.3.2 Governor Steady State Characteristics 723.3.3 Parallel Operation of Two Generators 733.3.4 A Multi-Generator System 743.3.5 The Steady State Power-Frequency Relationship 753.4 Dynamic Frequency Control of Large Systems 763.4.1 Demand Matching 763.4.2 Demand Forecasting 773.4.3 Frequency Limits 793.4.4 Generation Scheduling and Reserve 793.4.5 Frequency Control at Different Timescales 803.4.6 Meeting Demand and Ensuring Reliability 823.4.7 Capacity Factor and Capacity Credit 833.5 Impact of Renewable Generation on Frequency Control and Reliability 843.5.1 Introduction 843.5.2 Aggregation of Sources 853.5.2.1 The Monthly Distribution of Power Availability 853.5.2.2 The Daily Distribution of Power Availability 853.5.2.3 Short Term Variability 863.5.2.4 The Capacity Factor 863.5.3 Value of Energy from the Wind 883.5.4 Impact on Balancing 883.5.5 Impact on Reliability 903.5.6 Discarded/Curtailed Energy 913.5.7 Overall Penalties Due to Increasing Penetration 923.5.8 Combining Different Renewable Sources 923.5.9 Differences Between Electricity Systems 933.5.10 Limits of Penetration from Non-Dispatchable Sources 943.6 Frequency Response Services from Renewables 963.6.1.1 Wind Power 963.6.1.2 Biofuels 1003.6.1.3 Waterpower 1003.6.1.4 Photovoltaics 1003.7 Frequency Control Modelling 1013.7.1 Background 1013.7.1.1 Modelling a Generator 1013.7.1.2 Modelling Released Demand 1023.7.1.3 Modelling the Grid's Inertial Energy Store 1023.7.2 A Modelling Example 1033.8 Energy Storage 1053.8.1 Introduction 1053.8.2 Storage Devices 1063.8.3 Dynamic Demand Control 108References 111Further Reading 1134 Electrical Power Generation and Conditioning 1154.1 The Conversion of Renewable Energy into Electrical Form 1154.2 The Synchronous Generator 1164.2.1 Construction and Mode of Operation 1164.2.2 The Rotating Magnetic Field 1194.2.3 Synchronous Generator Operation When Grid Connected 1204.2.4 The Synchronous Generator Equivalent Circuit 1224.2.5 Power Transfer Equations 1234.2.6 Three-Phase Equations 1244.2.7 Four-Quadrant Operation 1254.2.8 Power-Load Angle Characteristic 1254.3 The Transformer 1264.3.1 Transformer Basics 1264.3.2 The Transformer Equivalent Circuit 1284.3.3 Further Details on Transformers 1294.4 The Asynchronous Generator 1304.4.1 Construction and Properties 1304.4.2 The Induction Machine Equivalent Circuit 1324.4.3 The Induction Machine Efficiency 1344.4.4 The Induction Machine Speed-Torque Characteristic 1344.4.5 Induction Generator Reactive Power 1374.4.6 Comparison Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Generators 1374.5 Power Electronics 1394.5.1 Introduction 1394.5.2 Power-Semiconductor Devices 1394.5.2.1 Diodes 1394.5.2.2 Thyristors 1394.5.2.3 Transistors 1404.5.3 Diode Bridge Rectifier 1414.5.4 Harmonics 1424.5.5 The Thyristor Bridge Converter 1434.5.6 The Transistor Bridge 1454.5.6.1 Basic Square Wave 1464.5.6.2 Quasi-Sine Wave (Modified Square Wave) 1464.5.6.3 Pulse-Width Modulation 1464.5.6.4 Comparison of Switching Methods 1484.5.6.5 Output Control in a Grid-Connected Inverter 1484.5.6.6 The Three-Phase Bridge 1494.5.7 Converter Internal Control Systems 1494.5.8 DC-DC Converters 1504.5.8.1 Step-Down DC-DC Converter 1504.5.8.2 Step-Up DC-DC Converter 1504.5.9 Multi-Level Converters 1514.5.10 Matrix Converters 1514.5.11 Z-Source Converters 1514.6 Applications to Renewable Energy Generators 1524.6.1 Applications to PV Systems 1524.6.1.1 PV System Characteristics 1524.6.1.2 Basic Grid-Connected PV Inverter 1534.6.1.3 Transformerless Grid-Connected PV Inverter 1534.6.1.4 PV Inverter Using a High-Frequency Transformer 1544.6.1.5 PV Inverter Using a Steering Bridge 1544.6.1.6 PV Inverters for Stand-Alone Operation 1554.6.2 Applications to Wind Power 1554.6.2.1 Fixed Versus Variable Speed - Energy Capture [4] 1554.6.2.2 Fixed Versus Variable Speed - Dynamics 1564.6.3 Synchronous Generator Supplying an Autonomous Network 1574.6.3.1 Fixed-Speed Wind Turbines 1574.6.3.2 Variable Slip Wind Turbines 1584.6.4 The Principle of Slip Energy Recovery 1594.6.4.1 DFIG Wind Turbines 1604.6.4.2 Wind Turbines with Full Converters 1624.6.5 Synchronous Generators in Wind Turbines 1624.6.6 Gearless Wind Turbines 1634.6.7 Hybrid Drive Train Designs 1644.6.8 DC Transmission for Wind 1654.7 Applications to Small Scale Hydro 1664.8 Applications to Tidal Stream Turbines 167References 1685 Power-System Analysis 1715.1 Introduction 1715.2 The Transmission System 1715.2.1 Single-Phase Representation 1735.2.2 Transmission and Distribution Systems 1735.2.3 Example Networks 1745.3 Voltage Control 1765.4 Power Flow in an Individual Section of Line 1785.4.1 Electrical Characteristics of Lines and Cables 1785.4.2 Single-Phase Equivalent Circuit 1785.4.3 Voltage Drop Calculation 1795.4.4 Simplifications and Conclusions 1805.5 Reactive Power Management 1815.5.1 Reactive Power Compensation Equipment 1825.5.1.1 Tap Changers and Voltage Regulators 1825.5.1.2 AVRs 1835.5.1.3 Static Compensators 1845.5.1.4 FACTS 1845.5.1.5 RE Generator Interfaces 1845.6 Load-Flow and Power-System Simulation 1845.6.1 Uses of Load Flow 1845.6.2 A Particular Case 1855.6.3 Network Data 1865.6.4 Load/Generation Data 1865.6.4.1 Time Dependence 1865.6.4.2 Types of Nodes (Buses) 1875.6.5 The Load-Flow Calculations 1885.6.6 Results 1895.6.7 Unbalanced Load-Flow 1895.7 Faults and Protection 1905.7.1 Short-Circuit Fault Currents 1915.7.2 Symmetrical Three-Phase Fault Current 1915.7.3 Fault Currents in General 1915.7.4 Fault Level (Short-Circuit Level) -Weak Grids 1925.7.5 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 1935.8 Time Varying and Dynamic Simulations 1935.9 Power-System Stability 1945.9.1 Equal Area Stability Criterion 1955.9.2 Power-System Stabilisers 1965.10 Dynamic Line Rating 1965.11 Reliability Analysis 197References 1976 Renewable Energy Generation in Power Systems 1996.1 Distributed Generation 1996.1.1 Introduction 1996.1.2 Point of Common Coupling (PCC) 2006.1.3 Connection Voltage 2006.2 Voltage Effects 2016.2.1 Steady State Voltage Rise 2016.2.2 Automatic Voltage Control - Tap Changers 2026.2.3 Active and Reactive Power from Renewable Energy Generators 2036.2.4 Example Load Flow 2046.3 Thermal Limits 2076.3.1 Overhead Lines and Cables 2076.3.2 Transformers 2086.4 Other Embedded Generation Issues 2086.4.1 Flicker, Voltage Steps and Dips 2086.4.1.1 Flicker 2086.4.1.2 Steps and Dips 2096.4.2 Harmonics/Distortion 2096.4.3 Phase Voltage Imbalance 2106.4.4 Network Reinforcement 2116.4.5 Network Losses 2116.4.6 Fault Level Increase 2116.5 Islanding 2126.5.1 Introduction 2126.5.2 Loss-of-Mains Protection for Rotating Machines 2136.5.3 Loss-of-Mains Protection for Inverters 2136.6 Fault Ride-Through 2146.7 Generator and Converter Characteristics 215References 2167 Power System Economics and the Electricity Market 2197.1 Introduction 2197.2 The Costs of Electricity Generation 2197.2.1 Capital and Running Costs of Renewable and Conventional Generation Plant 2197.2.2 Total Generation Costs 2217.3 Economic Optimisation in Power Systems 2217.3.1 Diversity of Generator Characteristics in a Power System 2217.3.2 Optimum Economic Dispatch 2217.3.3 Equal Incremental Cost Dispatch 2247.3.4 OED with Several Units and Generation Limits 2257.3.5 Costs on a Level Playing Field 2287.4 External Costs 2297.4.1 Introduction 2297.4.2 Types of External Cost 2307.4.3 The Kyoto Protocol and Subsequent Agreements 2317.4.4 Costing Pollution 2337.5 Effects of Embedded Generation 2347.5.1 Value of Energy At Various Points of the Network 2347.5.2 An Example Cash-Flow Analysis 2357.5.3 Value of Embedded Generation - Regional and Local Issues 2377.5.4 Capacity Credit 2387.5.5 Summary 2417.6 Support Mechanisms for Renewable Energy 2417.6.1 Introduction 2417.6.2 Feed-in Law 2427.6.3 Quota System 2427.6.3.1 Renewables Obligation (RO) 2427.6.3.2 Contract for Difference (CFD) 2437.6.4 Carbon Tax 2437.6.4.1 Climate Change Levy 2437.6.4.2 Eco-Tax Reform 2437.6.4.3 Tax Relief 2447.7 Electricity Markets 2447.7.1 Introduction 2447.7.2 The UK Electricity Supply Industry 2447.7.2.1 The State-Owned Central Electricity-Generating Board 2447.7.2.2 The Electricity Pool 2447.7.2.3 The Operation of the Pool and Pool Rules 2457.7.2.4 Hedging 2467.7.2.5 Electricity Market Reform (EMR) 2477.7.2.6 Ancillary Services 2477.7.2.7 Marketing Green Electricity 248References 2488 The Future - Towards a Sustainable Electricity Supply System 2498.1 Introduction 2498.2 The Future of Wind Power 2518.2.1 Large Wind Turbines 2518.2.2 Offshore Wind Farm Development 2548.2.2.1 Electrical Integration 2568.2.2.2 DC Transmission for Wind 2578.2.2.3 Innovative Collector Systems 2578.2.2.4 A Proposed European DC Supergrid 2578.2.2.5 Smarter Wind Farms 2608.2.3 Building Integrated Wind Turbines 2628.3 The Future of Solar Power 2648.3.1 PV Technology Development 2648.3.1.1 Different Deployment Options 2658.3.2 Solar Thermal Electric Systems 2678.4 The Future of Biofuels 2688.5 Geothermal Power 2718.6 The Future of Hydro and Marine Power 2718.7 The Shape of Future Networks 2728.7.1 Transmission System Evolution 2738.7.2 Low Inertia Power Systems 2758.7.3 Distribution Network Evolution 2768.7.3.1 Active Networks 2778.7.4 Problems Associated with Distributed Generation 2788.7.4.1 Fault Levels 2788.7.4.2 Voltage Levels 2788.7.4.3 Network Security 2798.7.4.4 Network Stability 2798.7.5 Options to Ameliorate the Technical Difficulties 2798.7.5.1 Planning Standards 2798.7.5.2 Using Power Electronics Technology 2798.7.5.3 Islanding 2808.7.5.4 Dynamic Loads 2808.7.5.5 Demand-Side Management of Loads 2818.7.5.6 Storage 2828.7.5.7 Microgrids 2828.7.5.8 Virtual Power Stations 2838.8 Conclusions 283References 285Appendix A Basic Electric Power Engineering Concepts 289A.1 Introduction 289A.2 Generators and Consumers of Energy 289A.3 Why AC? 291A.4 AC Waveforms 291A.5 Response of Circuit Components to AC 292A.5.1 Resistance 292A.5.2 Inductance 293A.5.3 Capacitance 295A.6 Phasors 296A.7 Phasor Addition 297A.8 Rectangular Notation 298A.9 Reactance and Impedance 300A.9.1 Resistance 300A.9.2 Inductance 301A.9.3 Capacitance 301A.9.4 Impedance 301A.10 Power in AC Circuits 302A.11 Reactive Power 304A.12 Complex Power 305A.13 Conservation of Active and Reactive Power 306A.14 Effects of Reactive Power Flow - Power Factor Correction 307A.15 Three-Phase AC 308A.16 The Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 310Reference 311Index 313