Description
Gulf Publishing Company The Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers 2008 Edition by George V Chilingar, Ryan Mourhatch, Ghazi D Al-Qahtani
Scale, or deposits, can build up in the wellbore tubulars and other downhole components, causing considerable damage to the life of the well. Infrastructure provides the support for the wells system and with oil and gas consumption on the rise and transportation required to feed that demand, all petroleum and pipeline engineers must have accurate corrosion and scaling information.The Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers will provide the quick knowledge that engineers need to not only enhance the reliability of corrosion and scale control technologies but also manage scale deposits, prevent fatigue and ensure equipment integrity. Table of Contents : AcknowledgmentsPrefaceForeword1 Introduction to Corrosion1.1 Introduction1.2 Definition of Corrosion1.3 Introduction to Electrochemistry1.4 Corrosion Agents in Drilling and Producing Operations1.5 Requirements for Electrochemical Corrosion1.5.1 Components of Electrochemical Corrosion1.6 Chemistry of Corrosion and Electromotive Force Series1.6.1 Actual Electrode Potentials1.7 Galvanic Series1.7.1 Cathode/Anode Areal Ratio1.7.2 Polarization1.8 Corrosion of Steel1.9 Gaseous Corrodants1.9.1 Oxygen1.9.2 Hydrogen Sulfide1.9.3 Carbon Dioxide1.9.4 Alkalinity of Environment1.10 Cathodic Protection1.11 Role of Bacteria in Corrosion1.12 Corrosion in Gas-Condensate Wells1.13 Corrosion Rate Measurement Units2 Types of Corrosion2.1 Introduction2.2 Sweet Corrosion2.3 Sour Corrosion2.4 Classes of Corrosion2.4.1 Stress-Induced Corrosion2.5 Types of Cracking in Drilling and Producing Environments2.5.1 Hydrogen Embrittlement (Sulfide Cracking)2.5.2 Hydrogen Blistering2.5.3 Corrosion Fatigue3 Microbial Corrosion3.1 Introduction3.1.1 Microbial Growth and Metabolism3.2 Microbes Associated with Oil field Corrosion3.3 Microbial Interaction with Produced Oil3.4 Microorganisms in Corrosion3.4.1 Prokaryotes3.4.2 Eukaryotes3.5 Different Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion3.6 Corrosion Inhibition by Bacteria3.7 Microbial Corrosion Control4 Corrosion Control and Detection4.1 Introduction to Corrosion Control4.2 Cathodic Protection4.3 Conditions for the Steady State or Limiting Corrosion Rate4.3.1 Dangerous Inhibitors4.4 Inhibitors and Passivators4.4.1 Classification of Inhibitors4.5 Coating4.6 Detection of Corrosion4.6.1 Chemical Tests4.6.2 Microbial Tests4.6.3 Electrochemical Tests4.6.4 Pipeline Tests4.7 Measurement of Corrosion4.7.1 Visual Inspection4.7.2 Caliper Surveys4.7.3 Casing Thickness Logs4.7.4 Radiography4.8 Nondestructive Test Methods4.8.1 Metal Loss Rate Tests Using Coupons4.8.2 Other Corrosion Rate Monitors5 Casing and Pipeline Corrosion5.1 Introduction5.2 Types of Casing5.2.1 Cassion Pipe5.2.2 Conductor Pipe5.2.3 Surface Casing5.2.4 Intermediate Casing5.2.5 Production Casing5.2.6 Liners5.3 Corrosion of Steel5.3.1 External Casing Corrosion5.3.2 Casing Corrosion Inspection Tools5.4 Protection of Casing from Corrosion5.4.1 Wellhead Insulation5.4.2 Cementation5.4.3 Completion Fluids5.4.4 Steel Grades5.4.5 Casing Leaks5.4.6 Cathodic Protection of Casing5.5 Interaction of Old with New Pipeline6 Scaling6.1 Hardness and Alkalinity6.2 Mineral Scales6.2.1 Calcium Carbonate Scale6.2.2 Sulfate Scales6.3 Prediction of Scale Formation6.4 Solubilities of Various Sulfates and Carbonates6.5 Solubility of Calcite, Dolomite, and Magnesite and Mixture of These Carbonates6.6 Relative Permeability Concepts6.6.1 Effect of Water Hardness on Relative Permeability Curves6.6.2 Effect of Water Chemistry on Oil Recovery6.7 Scale Inhibition7 Water Quality Control7.1 Introduction7.2 Injection Suitability7.2.1 Clay Swelling7.2.2 Formation and Deposition of Insoluble Material in the Formation7.2.3 Increase in Oil Saturation7.2.4 Suspended Solids7.2.5 Movement of Formation Fines7.2.6 Sources of Suspended Solids7.3 Corrosion7.3.1 Some Causes of Waterflood Corrosion7.3.2 Carbon Dioxide7.3.3 Hydrogen Sulfide7.3.4 Oxygen7.3.5 Interactions of the Gases7.3.6 Bacterial Corrosion (See Chapter 3)7.4 Use of Seawater for Injection Purposes7.4.1 Characteristics of Seawater7.4.2 Dissolved Oxygen7.4.3 Calcium Carbonate Saturation7.4.4 pH of Seawater7.4.5 High Sulfate Ion Content7.4.6 Magnesium Ion7.4.7 Marine Life7.4.8 Seasonal Changes in Composition of Seawater7.4.9 Oil Content7.5 Selection of Water Intake Location7.5.1 Shallow Well in Seawater Aquifer7.5.2 Intake from Nearshore Area7.5.3 Offshore Intake7.6 Design of Water Intake7.6.1 Trash Screen7.6.2 Fine Screen7.6.3 Chlorination7.6.4 Filtration7.6.5 Deaeration of Seawater7.6.6 Oxygen Scavenging7.6.7 Stabilization of Seawater7.6.8 Temperature of Seawater7.6.9 Biocidal Treatment of Seawater7.6.10 Corrosion Inhibition7.7 Test Methods Used in Waterflooding Operations7.7.1 Dissolved Oxygen7.7.2 pH Change7.7.3 The Membrane Filter Test7.7.4 Total Iron Count Increase7.7.5 Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria7.7.6 Total Bacteria7.7.7 Corrosion Coupons7.7.8 Significance of Various Tests7.7.9 Reporting of Test Data7.8 COPRA Correlation7.9 Preparation of Water for Subsurface Injection7.9.1 Oil Removal7.9.2 Gravity Separation7.9.3 Flotation7.9.4 Removal of Solids (Filtration)7.9.5 Slow Sand Filters7.9.6 Rapid Sand Filters7.9.7 High-Rate Rapid Sand Filters7.9.8 Diatomaceous Earth Filters7.9.9 Selection of Diatomite7.10 Removal of Dissolved Gases7.11 Equipment Considerations7.11.1 Pipelines7.11.2 Separators7.11.3 Volume and Origin of Suspended Material to Be Removed7.11.4 Aggressiveness of Waters7.11.5 Value of Space on Which Facilities are to Be Located7.11.6 Filtration Equipment7.11.7 Clarification7.11.8 In-Line Flocculation Systems7.11.9 Filter-Aid Filters and In-Line Flocculation Filters7.12 Degassing Equipment7.12.1 Deaeration Equipment7.13 Chemical Mixing and Feed Equipment8 Economics of Corrosion8.1 Introduction8.2 Direct and Indirect Cost of Corrosion8.3 Major Industrial Categories of Corrosion Costs8.3.1 Infrastructure8.3.2 Utilities8.3.3 Production and Manufacturing8.4 Corrosion-Control Economics and Preventive Methods8.5 Galvanic versus Imposed Direct Electrical Current in Cathodic ProtectionA Sample Problems and QuestionsA.1 Sample Problems and Questions (Solutions and Answers are Provided)A.2 Sample Questions and Problems (No Solutions)B GlossaryC Conversion of UnitsC.1 Temperature Conversion FormulasC.2 Approximate EquivalentsC.3 Theoretical AspectsIndex