Description
Springer The Togaviridae And Flaviviridae 1986 Edition by Sondra Schlesinger Milton J. Schlesinger
The publication of this volume of The Viruses entitled The Togaviridae and Flaviviridae comes at an appropriate time. The structure and rep- lication strategies of these viruses are now known to be sufficiently di- verse to warrant the removal of flaviviruses from the Togaviridae family and establish them as an independent family. Flaviviridae have a special place in the history of virology. The prototype virus-yellow fever virus- was the first virus to be identified as the cause of a human disease. Some of the history of this discovery is described in Chapter 1 of this volume; in Chapter 10 the complete sequence of the RNA genome of the virus is presented. This sequence not only defines the primary structure of the viral proteins it also clarifies the mechanism of translation of the fla- vivirus genome. Knowledge of the sequence of the structural proteins of these viruses represents an important step in the potential goal of using purified flavivirus glycoproteins as vaccines. Many of the chapters in this volume focus on the structure and replication of the Togaviridae. These viruses have provided valuable models for studies in cell biology partic- ularly with regard to the cotranslational and posttranslational steps re- quired for the synthesis and localization of membrane glycoproteins. Fur- thermore Togaviridae have been pivotal in our growing understanding of how enveloped viruses enter and exit from cells. The broad outlines of the structure and gene expression of Togavir- idae and Flaviviridae are known but important questions remain. Table of contents : 1 Comparative and Historical Aspects of the Togaviridae and Flaviviridae.- I. Introduction.- II. Yellow Fever.- A. Early History.- B. Carlos J. Finlay and the Walter Reed Commission.- C. Yellow Fever Commissions of the Rockefeller Foundation.- D. Asibi Virus and the 17D Yellow Fever Vaccine.- III. Early Studies on Viral Encephalitides.- IV. Arthropod-Borne Viruses.- A. Antigenic Relationships among Arboviruses.- B. Serological Groups A and B.- V. Viral Classification and Nomenclature.- VI. Arbovirus Study Group: Togaviruses and Togaviridae.- VII. Non-Arthropod-Borne Togaviruses.- VIII. Contribution of the World Health Organization.- IX. Contribution of the American Committee on Arthropod-Borne Viruses.- X. Impact of Molecular Biology on Viral Classification.- XI. Flaviviridae as a Separate Family.- References.- 2 Alphavirus Structure.- I. Introduction.- II. General Properties.- A. Radial Organization.- B. Glycoprotein Shell.- C. Lipid Bilayer.- D. Core (Nucleocapsid).- E. Hexagonal Glycoprotein Arrays.- III. Virion Assembly.- References.- 3 Structure and Replication of the Alphavirus Genome.- I. Introduction.- II. Structure of the Alphavirus Genome.- A. Physical Structure.- B. Genome Organization.- III. Nonstructural Proteins.- A. Translation and Processing.- B. Opal Codon.- C. Functions of Nonstructural Proteins.- IV. Structural Proteins.- A. Translation and Processing.- B. Functions of Structural Proteins.- C. Mapping of Temperature-Sensitive Mutants.- V. Replication and Transcription of Viral RNA.- A. In Vivo Studies of RNA Replication.- B. In Vitro Studies of RNA Replication.- C. Genetic Studies of Replicase Functions.- D. Host-Cell Proteins as Components of the Viral Replicase.- E. Conserved Sequences in Alphavirus RNAs.- F. Cyclization of Alphavirus RNAs.- G. Alphavirus Defective Interfering RNAs.- VI. Evolution of the Alphavirus Genome.- A. Evolution within the Genus Alphavirus.- B. Codon Usage in Alphaviruses.- C. Evolution within the Family Togaviridae.- D. Relationship of Alphaviruses to Other RNA Viruses.- VII. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 4 Entry of Alphaviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Attachment.- III. Endocytotic Uptake and Penetration.- A. Cell Biology of Endocytosis.- B. Endocytosis of Viruses.- C. Role of Endosomes in Virus Penetration.- IV. Inhibition of Entry.- A. Lysosomotropic Weak Bases.- B. Carboxylic Ionophores.- C. Monovalent Cations.- D. Temperature Effects.- V. Acid-Dependent Membrane Fusion.- A. Properties of Fusion.- B. Acid-Induced Conformational Change in the Viral Spike Glycoproteins.- C. Mechanism of Fusion.- VI. Conclusion.- References.- 5 Formation and Assembly of Alphavirus Glycoproteins.- I. Glycoprotein Structures and Domains.- II. Biosynthesis of Polypeptides.- III. Glycosylation.- A. Synthesis and Structure of the Oligosaccharide Chains.- B. Role of Glycosylation in Virion Formation.- IV. Fatty Acid Acylation.- V. Proteolytic Formation of E2.- VI. Localization of Glycoproteins to Intracellular Organelles.- VII. Expression of Virus Glycoproteins from Complementary DNAs.- VIII. Assembly and Budding of Virus.- A. Nucleocapsid Formation.- B. Interactions at the Plasma Membrane.- IX. Conclusions and Perspectives.- References.- 6 Defective RNAs of Alphaviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Identification of Sequences Retained in the Defective Interfering Genomes of Sindbis and Semliki Forest Viruses.- A. Characterization of the Defective Interfering RNAs.- B. Sequence Organization of Defective Interfering RNAs of Sindbis and Semliki Forest Viruses.- C. Expression of Cloned Defective Interfering Genomes.- III. Defective Interfering Particles of Alphaviruses and Persistent Infections.- A. Characteristics of Persistent Infections in Mammalian Systems.- B. Evolution of Sindbis Virus and Its Defective Interfering RNAs during Persistent Infection of Baby Hamster Kidney Cells.- IV. Defective Interfering Particles as a Probe for Analysis of Viral Replication and Identification of Host Factors.- A. Generation and Accumulation of Defective Interfering Particles in Different Host Cells.- B. Biological Heterogeneity among Alphavirus Defective Interfering Particles.- V. Conclusion.- References.- 7 Replication of Alphaviruses in Mosquito Cells.- I. Introduction.- II. Growth of Alphaviruses in Whole Insects and Insect Larvae.- III. Development of Cell Cultures for Use in Studies of Alphavirus-Insect Cell Interactions.- IV. Early Events in the Infection of Cultured Insect Cells with Alphaviruses.- V. Development of Alphaviruses during Acute Infection of Insect Cells.- A. Kinetics of Virus Production.- B. Synthesis of Viral RNA and Protein.- C. Assembly and Maturation of Alphavirus.- D. Cell Response to Alphavirus Infection.- VI. Role of Insect Host-Cell Functions in the Reproduction of Alphaviruses.- VII. Establishment and Maintenance of Persistent Alphavirus Infections of Insect Cells.- A. Transition from Acute to Persistent Infection.- B. Role of Temperature-Sensitive Mutants and Defective Interfering Particles in the Establishment of Persistent Infection.- C. Appearance and Function of Antiviral Compounds.- VIII. Conclusions and Perspectives.- References.- 8 Alphavirus Pathogenesis and Immunity.- I. Introduction.- II. Disease Pathogenesis.- A. Eastern Equine Encephalitis.- B. Western Equine Encephalitis.- C. Sindbis Virus.- D. Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis.- E. Semliki Forest Virus.- F. Chikungunya and O'nyong-nyong Viruses.- G. Ross River Virus.- III. Development of the Immune Response.- A. Natural Immunity.- B. Virus-Specific Immunity.- IV. Summary.- References.- 9 The Use of Monoclonal Antibodies in Studies of the Structural Proteins of Togaviruses and Flaviviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Alphaviruses.- A. Serology and Classification of Alphaviruses.- B. Antigenic Mapping of Alphavirus Structural Proteins Using Monoclonal Antibodies.- C. Alphavirus Immunity.- D. Monoclonal Antibodies in Alphavirus Serology and Epidemiology.- E. Vaccine Strategy.- III. Flaviviruses.- A. Serology and Classification of Flaviviruses.- B. Antigenic Mapping of Flavivirus Structural Proteins Using Monoclonal Antibodies.- C. Flavivirus Immunity.- D. Monoclonal Antibodies in Flavivirus Serology and Epidemiology.- E. Vaccine Strategy.- IV. Other Viruses.- V. Assessment of Future Research Goals.- References.- 10 Structure of the Flavivirus Genome.- I. Introduction.- II. Physical Structure of the Genome.- III. Genome Organization.- A. Gene Order.- B. Translation Strategy.- C. Proteolytic Cleavages in Processing of Flavivirus Proteins.- IV. Characteristics of Flavivirus Proteins from Sequence Data.- V. Structures in the Flavivirus Genome.- VI. Evolution of Flaviviruses.- VII. Concluding Remarks.- References.- 11 Replication of Flaviviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Virion Morphology and Composition.- A. Morphology.- B. Physicochemical Properties and Chemical Composition.- C. Structural Proteins.- D. Genome RNA.- III. Infection of Cultured Cells.- A. Effect on Host-Cell Macromolecular Synthesis.- B Immune Enhancement.- IV. Viral Morphogenesis.- A. Intracellular Sites of Viral Macromolecular Synthesis.- V. Viral RNA Synthesis.- VI. Viral Protein Synthesis.- VII. Genetically Controlled Resistance to Flaviviruses.- VIII. Defective Interfering Particles.- IX. Persistent Infections.- X. Flavivirus Mutants.- XI. Summary.- References.- 12 Pathology of the Flaviviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Medical Importance of the Flaviviruses.- III. Pathobiological Significance of Natural Virus Variation and Heterogeneity.- IV. Pathogenesis of Flaviviral Encephalitis.- A. Host Factors That Influence Pathogenesis.- B. Major Aspects of Pathogenesis.- C. Immune Responses.- V. Pathogenesis of Flaviviral Hemorrhagic Fevers.- A. Comparative Pathology.- B. Sites of Viral Replication.- C. Pathogenesis of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever/Dengue Shock Syndrome.- D. Yellow Fever: Pathophysiological Correlations.- E Immune Modulation Suppression and Lymphocytolysis.- F. Persistent and Congenital Infections.- G. Genetic Host Resistance.- References.