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Applied Water Science Fundamentals and Applications by Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula , John Wiley & Sons Inc

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  • General Information  
    Author(s)Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula
    PublisherJohn Wiley & Sons Inc
    ISBN9781119724766
    Pages560
    BindingHardback
    LanguageEnglish
    Publish YearJuly 2021

    Description

    John Wiley & Sons Inc Applied Water Science Fundamentals and Applications by Inamuddin, Mohd Imran Ahamed, Rajender Boddula

    Water is one of the most precious and basic needs of life for all living beings, and a precious national asset. Without it, the existence of life cannot be imagined. Availability of pure water is decreasing day by day, and water scarcity has become a major problem that is faced by our society for the past few years. Hence, it is essential to find and disseminate the key solutions for water quality and scarcity issues. The inaccessibility and poor water quality continue to pose a major threat to human health worldwide. Around billions of people lacking to access drinkable water. The water contains the pathogenic impurities; which are responsible for water-borne diseases. The concept of water quality mainly depends on the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological measurement standards to evaluate the water quality and determine the concentration of all components, then compare the results of this concentration with the purpose for which this water is used. Therefore, awareness and a firm grounding in water science are the primary needs of readers, professionals, and researchers working in this research area.

    This book explores the basic concepts and applications of water science. It provides an in-depth look at water pollutants’ classification, water recycling, qualitative and quantitative analysis, and efficient wastewater treatment methodologies. It also provides occurrence, human health risk assessment, strategies for removal of radionuclides and pharmaceuticals in aquatic systems.  The book chapters are written by leading researchers throughout the world. This book is an invaluable guide to students, professors, scientists and R&D industrial specialists working in the field of environmental science, geoscience, water science, physics and chemistry.

    ABOUT THE AUTHOR
    Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.

    Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning.

    Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters.

    Tauseef Ahmad Rangreez, PhD, is working as a postdoctoral fellow at the National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, India. He completed his PhD in applied chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India and worked as a project fellow under the University Grant Commission, India. He has published several research articles and co-edited books. His research interest includes ion-exchange chromatography, development of nanocomposite sensors for heavy metals and biosensors.

    TABLE OF CONTENTS
    Preface xix

    1 Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques for the Analysis of Phthalic Acid Esters in Water Samples 1
    Miguel Ángel González-Curbelo, Javier González-Sálamo, Diana A. Varela-Martínez and Javier Hernández-Borges

    1.1 Introduction 2

    1.2 Solid-Phase Microextraction 6

    1.3 Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction 25

    1.4 Solid-Phase Extraction 26

    1.5 Others Minor Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques 48

    1.6 Conclusions 52

    Acknowledgements 53

    References 53

    2 Occurrence, Human Health Risks, and Removal of Pharmaceuticals in Aqueous Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives 63
    Willis Gwenzi, Artwell Kanda, Concilia Danha, Norah Muisa-Zikali and Nhamo Chaukura

    2.1 Introduction 64

    2.2 Occurrence and Behavior of Pharmaceutics in Aquatic Systems 65

    2.2.1 Nature and Sources 65

    2.2.2 Dissemination and Occurrence in Aquatic Systems 67

    2.2.3 Behaviour in Aquatic Systems 71

    2.3 Human Health Risks and Their Mitigation 73

    2.3.1 Human Exposure Pathways 73

    2.3.2 Potential Human Health Risks 74

    2.3.3 Human Health Risks: A Developing World Perspective 81

    2.3.4 Removal of Pharmaceuticals 82

    2.3.4.1 Conventional Removal Methods 83

    2.3.4.2 Advanced Removal Methods 85

    2.3.4.3 Hybrid Removal Processes 88

    2.4 Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions 88

    2.4.1 Increasing Africa’s Research Footprint 88

    2.4.2 Hotspot Sources and Reservoirs 89

    2.4.3 Behavior and Fate in Aquatic Systems 89

    2.4.4 Ecotoxicology of Pharmaceuticals and Metabolites 89

    2.4.5 Human Exposure Pathways 89

    2.4.6 Human Toxicology and Epidemiology 90

    2.4.7 Removal Capacity of Low-Cost Water Treatment Processes 90

    2.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Outlook 90

    Author Contributions 91

    References 91

    3 Oil-Water Separations 103
    Pallavi Jain, Sapna Raghav and Dinesh Kumar

    3.1 Introduction 103

    3.2 Sources and Composition 106

    3.3 Common Oil-Water Separation Techniques 106

    3.4 Oil-Water Separation Technologies 107

    3.4.1 Advancement in the Technology of Membrane 111

    3.4.1.1 Polymer-Based Membranes 111

    3.4.1.2 Ceramic-Based Membranes 111

    3.5 Separation of Oil/Water Utilizing Meshes 113

    3.5.1 Mechanism Involved 113

    3.5.2 Meshes Functionalization 114

    3.5.2.1 Inorganic Materials 115

    3.5.2.2 Organic Materials 115

    3.6 Separation of Oil-Water Mixture Using Bioinspired Surfaces 116

    3.6.1 Nature’s Lesson 116

    3.6.2 Superhydrophilic/Phobic and Superoleophilic/Phobic Porous Surfaces 117

    3.7 Conclusion 118

    Acknowledgment 118

    References 119

    4 Microplastics Pollution 125
    Agnieszka Dąbrowska

    4.1 Introduction and General Considerations 125

    4.2 Key Scientific Issues Concerning Water and Microplastics Pollution 126

    4.3 Marine Microplastics: From the Anthropogenic Litter to the Plastisphere 131

    4.4 Social and Human Perspectives: From Sustainable Development to Civil Science 133

    4.5 Conclusions and Future Projections 134

    References 134

    5 Chloramines Formation, Toxicity, and Monitoring Methods in Aqueous Environments 139
    Rania El-Shaheny and Mahmoud El-Maghrabey

    5.1 Introduction 140

    5.2 Inorganic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 140

    5.3 Analytical Methods for Inorganic Chloramines 143

    5.3.1 Colorimetric and Batch Methods 144

    5.3.2 Chromatographic Methods 148

    5.3.3 Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry 150

    5.4 Organic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 151

    5.5 Analytical Methods for Organic Chloramines 154

    5.6 Conclusions 156

    References 156

    6 Clay-Based Adsorbents for the Analysis of Dye Pollutants 163
    Mohammad Shahadat, Momina, Yasmin, Sunil Kumar, Suzylawati Ismail, S. Wazed Ali and Shaikh Ziauddin Ahammad

    6.1 Introduction 164

    6.1.1 Biological Method 165

    6.1.2 Physical Method 165

    6.1.3 Why Only Clays? 165

    6.1.4 Clay-Based Adsorbents 166

    6.1.4.1 Kaolinite 166

    6.1.4.2 Rectorite 168

    6.1.4.3 Halloysite 169

    6.1.4.4 Montmorillonite 170

    6.1.4.5 Sepiolite 170

    6.1.4.6 Laponite 171

    6.1.4.7 Bentonite 171

    6.1.4.8 Zeolites 172

    6.2 Membrane Filtration 180

    6.3 Chemical Treatment 181

    6.3.1 Fenton and Photo-Fenton Process 182

    6.3.2 Mechanism Using Acid and Base Catalyst 182

    6.4 Photo-Catalytic Oxidation 186

    6.5 Conclusions 188

    Acknowledgments 188

    References 188

    7 Biochar-Supported Materials for Wastewater Treatment 199
    Hanane Chakhtouna, Mohamed El Mehdi Mekhzoum, Nadia Zari, Hanane Benzeid, Abou el kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid

    7.1 Introduction 200

    7.2 Generalities of Biochar: Structure, Production, and Properties 201

    7.2.1 Biochar Structure 201

    7.2.2 Biochar Production 203

    7.2.2.1 Pyrolysis 204

    7.2.2.2 Gasification 204

    7.2.2.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization 205

    7.2.3 Biochar Properties 205

    7.2.3.1 Porosity 205

    7.2.3.2 Surface Area 207

    7.2.3.3 Surface Functional Groups 207

    7.2.3.4 Cation Exchange Capacity 210

    7.2.3.5 Aromaticity 210

    7.3 Biochar-Supported Materials 212

    7.3.1 Magnetic Biochar Composites 212

    7.3.2 Nano-Metal Oxide/Hydroxide-Biochar Composites 214

    7.3.3 Functional Nanoparticles-Coated Biochar Composites 216 

    7.4 Conclusion 220

    References 222

    8 Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 227
    Aline Meireles dos Santos, Alberto Meireles dos Santos, Patricia Arrojo da Silva, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes

    8.1 Introduction 227

    8.2 Swine Wastewater Characteristics 228

    8.3 Microorganisms of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 231

    8.4 Classification of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 235

    8.5 Biological Processes For Swine Wastewater Treatment 236

    8.5.1 Suspended Growth Processes 237

    8.5.1.1 Activated Sludge Process 237

    8.5.1.2 Sequential Batch Reactor 237

    8.5.1.3 Sequencing Batch Membrane Bioreactor 238

    8.5.1.4 Anaerobic Contact Process 238

    8.5.1.5 Anaerobic Digestion 238

    8.5.2 Attached Growth Processes 239

    8.5.2.1 Rotating Biological Contactor 239

    8.5.2.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket 240

    8.5.2.3 Anaerobic Filter 240

    8.5.2.4 Hybrid Anaerobic Reactor 241

    8.6 Challenges and Future Prospects in Swine Wastewater Treatment 241

    References 242

    9 Determination of Heavy Metal Ions From Water 255
    Ritu Payal and Tapasya Tomer

    9.1 Introduction 255

    9.2 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions 256

    9.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 257

    9.2.2 Nanomaterials 257

    9.2.3 High-Resolution Surface Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy with Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 258

    9.2.4 Biosensors 259

    9.2.4.1 Enzyme-Based Biosensors 260

    9.2.4.2 Electrochemical Sensors 261

    9.2.4.3 Polymer-Based Biosensors 261

    9.2.4.4 Bacterial-Based Sensors 262

    9.2.4.5 Protein-Based Sensors 262

    9.2.5 Attenuated Total Reflectance 262

    9.2.6 High-Resolution Differential Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor 262

    9.2.7 Hydrogels 263

    9.2.8 Chelating Agents 264

    9.2.9 Ionic Liquids 265

    9.2.10 Polymers 266

    9.2.10.1 Dendrimers 266

    9.2.11 Macrocylic Compounds 266

    9.2.12 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry 267

    9.3 Conclusions 267

    References 268

    10 The Production and Role of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Medical Applications 273
    N. Jafta, S. Magagula, K. Lebelo, D. Nkokha and M.J. Mochane

    10.1 Introduction 273

    10.2 Functional Water 275

    10.3 Reduced Water 275

    10.4 Production of Hydrogen-Rich Water 277

    10.5 Mechanism Hydrogen Molecules During Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenging 279

    10.6 Hydrogen-Rich Water Effects on the Human Body 280

    10.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 280

    10.6.2 Anti-Radiation Effects 281

    10.6.3 Wound Healing Effects 282

    10.6.4 Anti-Diabetic Effects 284

    10.6.5 Anti-Neurodegenerative Effects 285

    10.6.6 Anti-Cancer Effects 285

    10.6.7 Anti-Arteriosclerosis Effects 285

    10.7 Other Effects of Hydrogenated Water 285

    10.7.1 Effect of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Hemodialysis 285

    10.7.2 Effect on Anti-Cancer Drug Side Effects 286

    10.8 Applications of Hydrogen-Rich Water 286

    10.8.1 In Health Care 286

    10.8.2 In Sports Science 288

    10.8.3 In Therapeutic Applications and Delayed Progression of Diseases 289

    10.9 Safety of Using Hydrogen-Rich Water 290

    10.10 Concluding Remarks 291

    References 292

    11 Hydrosulphide Treatment 299
    Marzie Fatehi and Ali Mohebbi

    11.1 Introduction 300

    11.1.1 Agriculture 302

    11.1.2 Medical 307

    11.1.3 Industrial 315

    11.2 Conclusions 325

    References 326

    12 Radionuclides: Availability, Effect, and Removal Techniques 331
    Tejaswini Sahoo, Rashmirekha Tripathy, Jagannath Panda, Madhuri Hembram, Saraswati Soren, C.K. Rath, Sunil Kumar Sahoo and Rojalin Sahu

    12.1 Introduction 332

    12.1.1 Available Radionuclides in the Environment 333

    12.1.1.1 Uranium 333

    12.1.1.2 Thorium (Z = 90) 334

    12.1.1.3 Radium (Z = 88) 335

    12.1.1.4 Radon (Z = 86) 336

    12.1.1.5 Polonium and Lead 336

    12.1.2 Presence of Radionuclide in Drinking Water 337

    12.1.2.1 Health Impacts of Radionuclides 338

    12.1.2.2 Health Issues Caused Due to Uranium 338

    12.1.2.3 Health Issues Caused Due to Radium 339

    12.1.2.4 Health Issues Caused Due to Radon 339

    12.1.2.5 Health Issues Caused Due to Lead and Polonium 339

    12.2 Existing Techniques and Materials Involved in Removal of Radionuclide 340

    12.2.1 Ion Exchange 340

    12.2.2 Reverse Osmosis 340

    12.2.3 Aeration 341

    12.2.4 Granulated Activated Carbon 341

    12.2.5 Filtration 342

    12.2.6 Lime Softening, Coagulation, and Co-Precipitation 342

    12.2.7 Flocculation 343

    12.2.8 Nanofilteration 343

    12.2.9 Greensand Filteration 344

    12.2.10 Nanomaterials 344

    12.2.10.1 Radionuclides Sequestration by MOFs 344

    12.2.10.2 Radionuclides Removal by COFs 345

    12.2.10.3 Elimination of Radionuclides by GOs 346

    12.2.10.4 Radionuclide Sequestration by CNTs 346

    12.2.11 Ionic Liquids 347

    12.3 Summary of Various Nanomaterial and Efficiency of Water Treating Technology 348

    12.4 Management of Radioactive Waste 348

    12.5 Conclusion 350

    References 350

    13 Applications of Membrane Contactors for Water Treatment 361
    Ashish Kapoor, Elangovan Poonguzhali, Nanditha Dayanandan and Sivaraman Prabhakar

    13.1 Introduction 362

    13.2 Characteristics of Membrane Contactors 362

    13.3 Membrane Module Configurations 365

    13.4 Mathematical Aspects of Membrane Contactors 366

    13.5 Advantages and Limitations of Membrane Contactors 367

    13.5.1 Advantages 367

    13.5.1.1 High Interfacial Contact 368

    13.5.1.2 Absence of Flooding and Loading 368

    13.5.1.3 Minimization of Back Mixing and Emulsification 368

    13.5.1.4 Freedom for Solvent Selection 368

    13.5.1.5 Reduction in Solvent Inventory 368

    13.5.1.6 Modularity 369

    13.5.2 Limitations 369

    13.6 Membrane Contactors as Alternatives to Conventional Unit Operations 370

    13.6.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 370

    13.6.2 Membrane Distillation 370

    13.6.3 Osmotic Distillation 372

    13.6.4 Membrane Crystallization 372

    13.6.5 Membrane Emulsification 372

    13.6.6 Supported Liquid Membranes 373

    13.6.7 Membrane Bioreactors 373

    13.7 Applications 374

    13.7.1 Wastewater Treatment 374

    13.7.2 Metal Recovery From Aqueous Streams 375

    13.7.3 Desalination 375

    13.7.4 Concentration of Products in Food and Biotechnological Industries 375

    13.7.5 Gaseous Stream Treatment 376

    13.7.6 Energy Sector 376

    13.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 377

    References 378

    14 Removal of Sulfates From Wastewater 383
    Ankita Dhillon, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar

    14.1 Introduction 383

    14.2 Effect of Sulfate Contamination on Human Health 384

    14.3 Groundwater Distribution of Sulfate 384

    14.4 Traditional Methods for Sulfate Removal 385

    14.4.1 Treatment With Lime 385

    14.4.2 Treatment With Limestone 386

    14.4.3 Wetlands 387

    14.5 Modern Day’s Technique for Sulfate Removal 387

    14.5.1 Nanofiltration 387

    14.5.2 Electrocoagulation 388

    14.5.3 Precipitation Methods 389

    14.5.4 Adsorption 391

    14.5.5 Ion Exchange 392

    14.5.6 Biological Treatment 393

    14.5.7 Removal of Sulfate by Crystallization 394

    14.6 Conclusions and Future Perspective 394

    Acknowledgment 395

    References 395

    15 Risk Assessment on Human Health With Effect of Heavy Metals 401
    Athar Hussain, Manjeeta Priyadarshi, Fazil Qureshi and Salman Ahmed

    15.1 Introduction 402

    15.2 Toxic Effects Heavy Metals on Human Health 403

    15.3 Biomarkers and Bio-Indicators for Evaluation of Heavy Metal Contamination 406

    15.3.1 Hazard Quotient 407

    15.3.2 Transfer Factor 407

    15.3.3 Daily Intake of Metal 408

    15.3.4 The Bioaccumulation Factor 409

    15.3.5 Translocation Factor 410

    15.3.6 Enrichment Factor 410

    15.3.7 Metal Pollution Index 412

    15.3.8 Health Risk Index 412

    15.3.9 Pollution Load Index 412

    15.3.10 Index of Geo-Accumulation 413

    15.3.11 Potential Risk Index 413

    15.3.12 Exposure Assessment 414

    15.3.13 Carcinogenic Risk 415

    References 417

    16 Water Quality Monitoring and Management: Importance, Applications, and Analysis 421
    Abhinav Srivastava and V.P. Sharma

    16.1 Qualitative Analysis: An Introduction to Basic Concept 422

    16.2 Significant Applications of Qualitative Analysis 422

    16.2.1 Water Quality 424

    16.2.2 Water Quality Index 426

    16.3 Qualitative Analysis of Water 427

    16.3.1 Sampling Procedure 428

    16.3.2 Sample Transportation and Preservation 429

    16.3.3 Some Important Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water Quality 431

    16.4 Existing Water Quality Standards 434

    16.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 435

    16.6 Conclusions 437

    References 437

    17 Water Quality Standards 441
    Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan

    17.1 Introduction 442

    17.2 Chemical Standards for Water Quality 443

    17.2.1 Physical Standards 443

    17.2.2 Chemical Standards for Salt Water Quality 445

    17.2.3 Biological Standards 446

    17.2.4 Radiation Standards 447

    17.2.5 Wastewater and Water Quality 447

    17.3 Inorganic Substances and Their Effect on Palatability and Household Uses 451

    17.3.1 Aluminum 451

    17.3.2 Calcium 451

    17.3.3 Magnesium 452

    17.3.4 Chlorides 452

    17.4 The Philosophy of Setting Standards for Drinking Water (Proportions and Concentrations of Water Components) 457

    17.5 Detection of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 458

    17.6 The Future Development of Water Analysis 459

    17.7 Conclusion 460

    References 460

    18 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Water 469
    Amita Chaudhary, Ankur Dwivedi and Ashok N Bhaskarwar

    18.1 Introduction 469

    18.2 Sources of Water 470

    18.3 Water Quality 472

    18.3.1 Physical Parameters 472

    18.3.2 Chemical Parameters 472

    18.3.3 Biological Parameters 474

    18.3.4 Water Quality Index 474

    18.4 Factors Affecting the Quality of Surface Water 476

    18.5 Quantitative Analysis of the Organic Content of the Wastewater 477

    18.5.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 477

    18.5.1.1 DO Profile Curve in BOD Test 478

    18.5.1.2 Significance of BOD Test 479

    18.5.1.3 Nitrification in BOD Test 480

    18.5.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 480

    18.5.3 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 482

    18.6 Treatment of Wastewater 483

    18.6.1 Primary Treatment Method 484

    18.6.1.1 Pre-Aeration 484

    18.6.1.2 Flocculation 484

    18.6.2 Secondary Treatment 485

    18.6.2.1 Aerobic Biological Process 485

    18.6.2.2 Anaerobic Biological Treatment 485

    18.6.2.3 Activated Sludge Process 487

    18.6.3 Tertiary Treatment 488

    18.6.3.1 Nutrients Removal 488

    18.6.3.2 Phosphorus Removal 490

    18.6.3.3 Ion-Exchange Process 490

    18.6.3.4 Membrane Process 491

    18.6.3.5 Disinfection 491

    18.6.3.6 Coagulation 491

    18.7 Instrumental Analysis of Wastewater Parameters 492

    18.7.1 Hardness 492

    18.7.2 Alkalinity 492

    18.7.3 pH 493

    18.7.4 Turbidity 493

    18.7.5 Total Dissolved Solids 494

    18.7.6 Total Organic Carbon 494

    18.7.7 Color 495

    18.7.8 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 495

    18.7.9 Inductive Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectroscopy 496

    18.7.10 Gas Chromatography With Mass Spectroscopy 497

    18.8 Methods for Qualitative Determination of Water 497

    18.8.1 Weight Loss Method 497

    18.8.2 Karl Fischer Method 498

    18.8.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Method 499

    18.8.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Method 499

    18.9 Conclusion 500

    References 500

    19 Nanofluids for Water Treatment 503
    Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Wilson Nwankwo, Olusola Olaleye, Olanrewaju Akinseye, Temitope Popoola and Mohd Imran Ahamed

    19.1 Introduction 504

    19.2 Types of Nanofluids Used in the Treatment of Water 505

    19.2.1 Zero-Valent Metal Nanoparticles 505

    19.2.1.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 505

    19.2.1.2 Iron Nanoparticles 506

    19.2.1.3 Zinc Nanoparticles 507

    19.2.2 Metal Oxides Nanoparticles 507

    19.2.2.1 Tin Dioxide (TiO2) Nanoparticles 507

    19.2.2.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) 508

    19.2.2.3 Iron Oxides Nanoparticles 508

    19.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 509

    19.2.4 Nanocomposite Membranes 509

    19.2.5 Modes of Action of These Nanofluids 509

    19.2.5.1 Carbon-Based Nano-Adsorbents (CNTs) for Organic Expulsion 509

    19.2.5.2 Heavy Metal Removal 510

    19.2.5.3 Metal-Based Nano-Adsorbents 510

    19.2.5.4 Polymeric Nano-Adsorbents 511

    19.2.5.5 Nanofiber Membranes 511

    19.2.5.6 Some Applications of Nanofluids in the Treatment of Water 512

    19.2.5.7 Informatics and AI Nanofluid-Enhanced Water Treatment 513

    19.3 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 516

    References 516

    Index 525



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