Description
Taylor & Francis Sustainable Energy Solutions in Agriculture 2014 Edition by Jochen Bundschuh, Guangnan Chen
Sustainability in agriculture and associated primary industries, which are both energy-intensive, is crucial for the development of any country. Increasing scarcity and resulting high fossil fuel prices combined with the need to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, make the improvement of energy efficient farming and increased use of renewable energy essential.This book provides a technological and scientific endeavor to assist society and farming communities in different regions and scales to improve their productivity and sustainability. To fulfill future needs of a modern sustainable agriculture, this book addresses highly actual topics providing innovative, effective and more sustainable solutions for agriculture by using sustainable, environmentally friendly, renewable energy sources and modern energy efficient, cost-improved technologies. The book highlights new areas of research, and further R&D needs. It helps to improve food security for the rapidly growing world population and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use in agriculture, which presently contributes 22% of the global carbon dioxide emissions. This book provides a source of information, stimuli and incentives for what and how new and energy efficient technologies can be applied as effective tools and solutions in agricultural production to satisfy the continually increasing demand for food and fibre in an economically sustainable way, while contributing to global climate change mitigation. It will be useful and inspiring to decision makers working in different authorities, professionals, agricultural engineers, researchers, and students concerned with agriculture and related primay industries, sustainable energy development and climate change mitigation projects. Table of contents :- Section 1: Introduction1. Towards a sustainable energy technologies based agriculture Jochen Bundschuh, Guangnan Chen & Shahbaz Mushtaq1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Challenges 1.2 Sustainable energy options in agriculture 1.2.1 Energy efficiency and energy conservation 1.2.1.1 Enhancing irrigation and energy efficiency of the irrigated systems1.2.1.2 Cooling and heating 1.2.2 Use of biomass and biomass waste for carbon-neutral production of biofuel, electricity and bio-coal fertilizers 1.2.3 Decentralized renewable energy systems (solar, wind, geothermal) 1.2.4 Economic benefit of green food 1.3 Conclusions Section 2: Energy efficiency and management2. Global energy resources, supply and demand, energy security and on-farm energy efficiency Ralph E.H. Sims2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Energy access 2.1.2 Environmental impacts 2.1.3 Food price and energy nexus 2.2 Global energy trends 2.2.1 Bridging the emissions gap 2.3 Other major related issues 2.3.1 Economic viability 2.3.2 Competing land uses 2.3.3 Dangerous climate change 2.3.4 Existing efforts are inadequate 2.4 Global energy supply for agriculture 2.5 Energy efficiency in agriculture 2.5.1 Tractors and machinery 2.5.2 Irrigation 2.5.3 Fertilizers 2.5.4 Dairy farms 2.5.5 Sheep and beef farms 2.5.6 Intensive livestock production and fishing 2.5.7 Greenhouse production 2.5.8 Fruit production 2.5.9 Cropping 2.6 Conclusions 3. Energy in crop production systems Jeff N. Tullberg3.1 Introduction 3.2 Energy distribution in farming systems3.3 Input energy efficiency 3.3.1 Farm machinery operations 3.3.2 Tractive power transmission 3.3.3 Efficiency of tractor-powered tillage 3.4 Land preparation by tillage 3.4.1 Tillage equipment 3.4.2 Tillage objectives and functions 3.5 Embodied energy 3.5.1 Machinery 3.5.2 Fertilizer 3.5.3 Agricultural chemicals 3.6 More energy-efficient cropping systems 3.6.1 General considerations 3.6.2 No-till and conservation agriculture 3.6.3 Controlled traffic farming 3.6.4 Precision and high-technology 3.6.4.1 Precision agriculture 3.6.4.2 Precision guidance 3.6.4.3 Robotics 3.6.5 Cropping system energy comparisons 3.7 Conclusion 4. The fossil energy use and CO2 emissions budget for Canadian agriculture James Arthur Dyer, Raymond Louis Desjardins & Brian Glenn McConkey4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Energy use issues 4.1.1.1 GHG emissions 4.1.1.2 Energy supply 4.1.1.3 Food security 4.1.1.4 Biofuel crops 4.1.1.5 CC adaptation 4.1.2 Defining the farm energy budget 4.1.2.1 Group 1 4.1.2.2 Group 2 4.1.2.3 Group 3 4.1.2.4 Excluded energy terms 4.2 Methodology 4.2.1 Modeling farm energy consumption 4.2.2 Computations for field operations 4.2.3 Response to tillage systems 4.2.4 Converting energy use to fossil CO2 emissions 4.2.5 Interfacing farm energy use with other GHG emission models 4.3 Farm energy use calculations 4.3.1 Land use areas 4.3.1.1 Land use 4.3.1.2 Farm field operations 4.3.1.3 Farm energy use budget 4.3.1.4 Fossil energy use for livestock production 4.4 Results 4.5 Discussion and conclusions 5. Energy efficiency technologies for sustainable agriculture and food processing LijunWang5.1 Introduction 5.2 Energy consumption in the agricultural production and food processing 5.2.1 Energy consumption in the agricultural production 5.2.2 Energy consumption in the food industry 5.2.2.1 Overview of energy consumption in the food industry 5.2.2.2 Energy use in different food manufacturing sectors 5.2.2.3 Energy use for production of different food products 5.2.3 Energy sources in the agricultural and food industry 5.2.3.1 Energy sources for agricultural production 5.2.3.2 Energy sources for food processing 5.2.4 Energy efficiency in agricultural production and food processing 5.3 Energy conservation and management in agricultural production and food processing 5.3.1 Energy conservation in agricultural production 5.3.2 Energy conservation in the utilities in food processing facilities 5.3.2.1 Energy savings in steam supply 5.3.2.2 Energy savings in compressed air supply5.3.2.3 Energy savings in power supply 5.3.2.4 Energy savings in heat exchanger 5.3.2.5 Energy savings by recovering waste heat 5.3.3 Energy conservation in energy-intensive unit operations of food processes 5.3.3.1 Energy savings in thermal food processing 5.3.3.2 Energy savings in concentration, dehydration and drying 5.3.3.3 Energy savings in refrigeration and freezing 5.4 Utilizations of energy efficiency technologies in agricultural production and food processing 5.4.1 Application of novel thermodynamic cycles 5.4.1.1 Heat pump 5.4.1.2 Novel refrigeration cycles 5.4.1.3 Heat pipes 5.4.2 Application of non-thermal food processes 5.4.2.1 Food irradiation 5.4.2.2 Pulsed electric fields 5.4.2.3 High-pressure processing 5.4.2.4 Membrane processing 5.4.2.5 Supercritical fluid processing 5.4.3 Application of novel heating methods 5.4.3.1 Microwave and radio frequency heating 5.4.3.2 Ohmic heating 5.4.3.3 Infrared radiation heating 5.5 Summary 6. Energy-smart food - technologies, practices and policies Ralph E.H. Sims & Alessandro Flammini6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 The key challenges 6.1.2 Scales of agricultural production 6.1.2.1 Subsistence 6.1.2.2 Small family farms 6.1.2.3 Small businesses 6.1.2.4 Large farms 6.2 Energy inputs and GHG emissions 6.2.1 Energy inputs for primary production 6.2.1.1 Tractors and machinery 6.2.1.2 Irrigation 6.2.1.3 Fertilizers 6.2.1.4 Livestock 6.2.1.5 Protected cropping in greenhouses 6.2.1.6 Fishing and aquaculture 6.2.1.7 Forestry 6.2.2 Energy inputs for secondary production 6.2.2.1 Drying, cooling and storage 6.2.2.2 Transport and distribution 6.2.3 Food processing 6.2.3.1 Preparation and cooking 6.3 The human dimension 6.3.1 Food losses and wastage 6.3.2 Changing diets 6.3.3 Modern energy services 6.4 Renewable energy supplies from agriculture 6.4.1 Renewable energy resources 6.4.2 Renewable energy systems 6.4.2.1 Biomass and bioenergy 6.4.2.2 Non-biomass renewable energy 6.4.3 The potential for energy-smart agriculture 6.4.3.1 A landscape approach to farming systems 6.4.3.2 Institutional arrangements and innovative business models 6.5 Policy options 6.5.1 Present related policies 6.5.2 Future policy requirements 6.5.2.1 Agriculture 6.5.2.2 Energy access 6.5.2.3 Climate change 6.5.2.4 Efficient energy use 6.5.2.5 Renewable energy deployment 6.5.2.6 Human behavior 6.6 Achieving energy-smart food 7. Energy, water and food: exploring links in irrigated cropping systems Tamara Jackson & Munir A. Hanjra7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Energy in agriculture 7.2 The energy-water nexus in crop production 7.2.1 Energy for irrigation 7.2.1.1 Factors affecting irrigation energy use 7.2.2 Energy and fertilizer 7.2.3 Energy and agrochemicals 7.2.4 Energy for machinery and equipment 7.2.4.1 Factors affecting input energy use for crop production 7.3 Patterns of energy consumption in irrigated agriculture 7.3.1 Study sites 7.3.2 Data requirements 7.3.3 Analyzing water application and energy consumption 7.3.3.1 Crop water requirements 7.3.3.2 Energy accounting 7.3.4 Results and discussion 7.3.4.1 Water application and energy consumption: baseline conditions 7.3.4.2 Potential energy and water savings using pressurized irrigation systems 7.3.5 Summary 7.4 Options for sustainable energy and water management in irrigated cropping systems7.4.1 Technical interventions 7.4.2 Policy strategies 7.5 Conclusions 8. Energy use and sustainability of intensive livestock production Jukka Ahokas, Mari Rajaniemi, Hannu Mikkola, Juri Frorip, Eugen Kokin, Jaan Praks, Vaino Poikalainen, Imbi Veermae &Winfried Schafer8.1 Energy and livestock production 8.1.1 What is energy 8.1.2 Energy consumption and emissions 8.1.3 Direct and indirect energy 8.1.4 Efficiency 8.1.5 Energy analysis 8.1.5.1 Methodology of energy analysis 8.1.5.2 Energy ratio 8.1.5.3 Specific energy consumption 8.1.5.4 Types of energy analysis 8.2 Livestock production sustainability 8.2.1 Sustainability 8.2.2 CO2 - equivalents 8.2.3 Livestock GHG emissions 8.3 Energy consumption in livestock production 8.3.1 Feed material production 8.3.1.1 Crop production 8.3.1.2 Grass and hay production 8.3.1.3 Concentrate production 8.3.2 Ventilation 8.3.3 Illumination 8.3.4 Heating of animal houses 8.3.4.1 Heat conduction 8.3.4.2 Heat losses by ventilation 8.3.5 Energy use follow-up 8.4 Energy use and saving in livestock production 8.4.1 Energy consumption in livestock production 8.4.2 Energy consumption in milk production 8.4.2.1 Milk production system 8.4.2.2 Energy used in milk production 8.4.2.3 Feed production and feed material 8.4.2.4 Use of direct energy 8.4.2.5 Milking and milk cooling 8.4.2.6 Lighting 8.4.2.7 Ventilation 8.4.2.8 Water pumping and hot water 8.4.2.9 Bringing up young cattle 8.4.3 Energy consumption in pork production 8.4.3.1 Pork production 8.4.3.2 Pork production energy consumption 8.4.3.3 Feed production and feed material 8.4.4 Energy consumption in broiler production 8.4.4.1 Broiler production 8.4.4.2 Energy consumption in broiler production 8.4.4.3 Lighting 8.4.4.4 Ventilation 8.4.4.5 Heating 8.4.4.6 Feed and feeding 8.5 Conclusions 9. Diesel engine as prime power for agriculture: emissions reduction for sustainable mechanization Xinqun Gui9.1 Diesel engine as prime power for agriculture 9.2 Global non-road emissions regulations 9.3 Building blocks of diesel engines 9.3.1 Combustion system 9.3.2 Electronic engine control system 9.3.3 Fuel injection system 9.3.4 Turbocharching 9.3.5 Exhaust gas recirculation 9.4 After treatment technologies 9.4.1 Particulate matter and NOx 9.4.2 Exhaust filtration 9.4.3 Regeneration types 9.4.4 Active regeneration technologies 9.4.5 Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) 9.4.6 Diesel particulate filter (DPF) 9.4.7 Catalyst canning 9.4.8 Exhaust fuel dosing system 9.4.9 After treatment system integration and controls 9.4.9.1 DOC outlet temperature control 9.4.9.2 Soot loading prediction 9.4.9.3 Active regeneration control 9.4.10 Diesel engine NOx aftertreatment technologies 9.4.10.1 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) 9.5 Meeting diesel emissions through tiers 9.5.1 Tier 3 and earlier engines 9.5.2 Meeting US EPA Tier 4 9.6 Biofuel for modern diesel engines 9.7 Summary and perspectives Section 3: Biofuels10. Biofuels from microalgae Malcolm R. Brown & Susan I. Blackburn10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Introduction to biofuels 10.1.2 History of investigation of biofuels from microalgae 10.1.3 Potential advantages of microalgae as biofuel feedstock 10.1.4 Overview of the production of biofuel from microalgae 10.1.5 Current status of commercial microalgal biofuel production and future prospects 10.2 General properties of microalgae 10.2.1 Taxonomy and general characteristics 10.2.2 Sourcing and maintaining microalgae species or strains 10.2.3 Chemical profiles of microalgae 10.2.3.1 Proximate composition 10.2.3.2 Qualitative aspects of proximate composition - amino acids and sugars 10.2.3.3 Lipid class and fatty acids 10.2.3.4 Other chemical components within microalgae of commercial interest 10.3 Selection of strains as candidates for biofuel feedstock 10.3.1 Growth rates and environmental tolerances from small-scale cultures 10.3.2 Screening for total lipid, and fatty acid quality 10.3.3 Other strain selection criteria 10.4 Scaling up production of microalgae biomass 10.4.1 General considerations 10.4.1.1 Light and temperature 10.4.1.2 Inorganic nutrients 10.4.1.3 CO2 10.4.1.4 Land and water 10.4.2 Pond systems 10.4.3 Photobioreactors (PBRs) 10.4.4 Fermentation systems 10.4.5 Hybrid growth systems 10.4.6 Productivities of microalgae growth systems 10.4.7 Improving productivity through technical and biological approaches 10.4.7.1 Culture system design 10.4.7.2 Ecological approaches 10.4.7.3 Breeding and genetic engineering 10.5 Harvesting of microalgal biomass 10.5.1 Flocculation 10.5.2 Gravity sedimentation 10.5.3 Flotation 10.5.4 Centrifugation 10.5.5 Filtration 10.5.6 Other separation techniques 10.6 Conversion of biomass to biofuels 10.6.1 Drying of microalgae biomass 10.6.2 Extraction of oil 10.6.3 Processes and biofuel products from microalgae 10.6.3.1 Biodiesel production 10.6.3.2 Bio-oil production by hydrothermal liquefaction 10.6.3.3 Gasification for syngas 10.6.3.4 Pyrolysis for bio-oil, biochar and syngas 10.6.3.5 Direct combustion 10.6.3.6 Fermentation processes to produce ethanol 10.6.3.7 Hydrogen through fermentation or biophotolysis 10.6.3.8 Anaerobic digestion for methane production 10.7 Towards commercial production 10.7.1 Current industry state 10.7.2 Economics of biofuel production 10.7.3 The concept of an integrated biorefinery 10.7.4 Environmental sustainability and life cycle analysis (LCA) 10.7.5 Political and social factors 10.8 Conclusion 11. Biodiesel emissions and performance Syed Ameer Basha11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Need of biodiesel 11.1.2 Biofuel 11.1.3 Production of biodiesel 11.2 Biodiesel emissions 11.2.1 NOx 11.2.2 COx 11.2.3 HC emissions of biodiesel 11.2.4 Particulate matter (PM) emissions 11.3 Biodiesel performance 11.3.1 Brake specific fuel consumption 11.3.2 Efficiency 11.4 Effect of a catalyst or additive 11.4.1 Effect of a catalyst on biodiesel emissions 11.4.2 Effect of catalysts and additives on biodiesel performance 11.4.2.1 Brake specific fuel consumption 11.4.2.2 Efficiency 11.5 Conclusions 12. Biogas Paul Harris & Hans Oechsner12.1 Introduction 12.2 What is biogas? 12.3 Brief history 12.4 Anaerobic digestion 12.5 Uses of biogas 12.6 Uses for liquid/sludge 12.7 Modeling digester performance 12.8 Digester performance 12.9 Types of digesters 12.10 Gas storage 12.11 Safety 12.11.1 Fire/explosion 12.11.2 Disease 12.11.3 Asphyxiation 12.11.4 Summary 12.12 Advanced digestion 12.12.1 High rate digesters 12.12.2 Two stage digesters 12.12.3 Anaerobic filters 12.12.4 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) digesters 12.12.5 Suspended growth digesters 12.12.6 Salt water digesters 12.12.7 Solid digestion 12.13 Packaged units 12.14 Startup 12.15 Monitoring digester operation 12.15.1 Indication of CO2 percentage 12.15.2 Measuring gas pressure 12.16 Burners 12.17 Fault finding 12.18 Construction tips 12.19 Conclusions 13. Thermal gasification of waste biomass from agriculture production for energy purposes Janusz Piechocki, Dariusz Wisniewski & Andrzej Bialowiec13.1 Introduction 13.2 Biomass waste 13.2.1 Properties of biomass 13.2.2 Biomass for energy production 13.3 Thermal gasification 13.3.1 Pyrolysis as the basic process of biomass gasification 13.3.2 Biomass torrefaction 13.3.3 Gasification - basic reactions 13.3.4 Biomass gasification methods 13.3.5 Byproducts of biomass gasification and elimination methods 13.3.6 Design parameters of gasification reactors 13.4 Summary 14. An innovative perspective: Transition towards a bio-based economy Nicole van Beeck, Albert Moerkerken, Kees Kwant & Bert Stuij14.1 Introduction: Why we need a bio-based economy 14.1.1 Towards a sustainable future 14.1.2 Relationship between agriculture and energy 14.1.3 What are the challenges? 14.1.4 The smart approach: a bio-based economy 14.2 Agriculture: The foundation of a bio-based economy 14.2.1 Agriculture and food 14.2.2 Soil fertility 14.2.3 Land use 14.2.4 Wastes in the food chain 14.2.5 Agrification policy at the origin of non-food industrial applications of biomass 14.3 Biomass at the basis of sustainable energy supply 14.3.1 Current energy demand 14.3.2 Food for thought: energy demand versus food demand 14.3.3 The carbon balance: the theoretical potential for a bio-based economy 14.3.4 Sustainability of biomass 39614.4 A cascading approach for sustainable deployment of biomass and the Trias Biologica 14.5 Case studies of cascading in The Netherlands 14.5.1 Facts and figures of The Netherlands 14.5.2 The Trias Biologica: the sugar case 14.5.2.1 De-carbonization 14.5.2.2 Substitution of fossil carbon with bio-based carbon 14.5.2.3 Cascading 14.5.2.4 De-carbonization 14.5.2.5 Substitution 14.5.2.6 Cascading 14.5.3 Bio-refinery: the grass cascading case 14.5.4 Making circular chains: the manure case 14.6 Discussion and conclusions on impact and prospects Section 4: Access to energy15. Increasing energy access in rural areas of developing countries Xavier Lemaire15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 The current situation of energy access in developing countries and the opportunity offered by the RETs 15.1.1.1 Contrasting situation across continents 15.1.1.2 The rationale for decentralized generation with RETs 15.1.1.3 How to deliver energy services to remote places, and what services to deliver? 15.2 Policy and institutions for energy access 15.2.1 The role of energy regulators and rural electrification agencies 15.2.1.1 Light-handed regulation 15.2.1.2 Standards and codes of practices 15.2.1.3 Planning 15.2.1.4 Who should be regulating off-grid electricity services, and why? 15.2.2 Funding and the question of subsidies 15.2.2.1 Targeted subsidies15.2.2.2 Subsidies for mini-grid technologies 15.2.2.3 Subsidies for decentralized stand-alone systems 15.2.3 The role of rural energy service companies (RESCOs) 15.2.3.1 Different business models for increasing energy access in rural areas with small decentralized RET systems 15.2.3.2 Cash purchase and micro-credit models 15.2.3.3 Fee-for-service models 15.2.3.4 Fee-for-service versus micro-credit models 15.2.3.5 Increasing energy access by using by-product of agriculture 15.3 Conclusion Subject index Book series pageshow more